Roundtrip in Peru

Peru

Peru is a republic in South America, bordering the Pacific Ocean, situated between Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil and Bolivia to the east, and Chile to the south. Its capital is Lima.
The Andes Mountains run through Peru from northwest to southeast, serving as the country's most central geographical feature. There is an inland lowland east of the Andes Mountains, toward the Amazon Rainforest.
Peru was the heart of the Inca Empire, which extended from present-day Colombia to Chile, with its capital in Cuzco. The country was conquered by the Spanish between 1531 and 1533 and became the seat of the Spanish viceroyalty in South America. Peru declared itself an independent republic in 1821.
Due to its historical heritage and biological diversity, Peru is a major tourist destination attracting visitors from around the world, with tourism being a key industry. The most visited sites include the Inca city of Machu Picchu in Cuzco, the Amazon Rainforest, and Lake Titicaca. Peruvian cuisine, including dishes like ceviche, has gained international recognition in recent years.
The name "Peru" comes from a river name in an indigenous language, Bíru or Piru, and Peru's national anthem is "Somos libres, seámoslo siempre" (We are free, may we always be so).
Peru's land area is equivalent to the combined area of Spain and France. The country's topographical variations result in 18 ecological regions, contributing to a great diversity of biodiversity and resources.
On the western side, at the foot of the Andes Mountains, there is a narrow coastal plain characterized by desert. This alternates with lush valleys along rivers originating in the Andes and flowing toward the Pacific Ocean (known as the Costa region). The coastal climate varies from relatively mild to very hot in the north. Humidity is high, but there is little rainfall. Despite its equatorial location, the coast is cooled by the cold ocean current known as the Humboldt Current.
The mountain region is called the Sierra. In northern Peru, the mountains are somewhat lower, with a humid climate and rich vegetation. In the central region, the mountains are higher and the valleys narrower. Here lies Huascarán, Peru's highest mountain at 6,768 meters above sea level. In southern Peru, the mountain ranges are wide, and the Andean high plateau (Altiplano) is found. Temperatures in the mountain region vary significantly due to differences in altitude. The mountain region has two main seasons: the rainy season (November–March) and the dry season (April–October).

The lowland region east of the Andes Mountains is called Selva, referring to the Amazon Rainforest. The Amazon River is formed in Peru, where the Marañón and Ucayali rivers meet. There is a distinction between highland rainforest (Selva alta) and lowland rainforest (Selva baja). Temperature and humidity are high year-round, with abundant rainfall. Both areas boast dense vegetation and significant biodiversity. The Amazon Rainforest is one of the most biologically diverse areas in the world.
Peru's history dates back 20,000 years when population groups migrated to present-day Peru from North America. The Chavín de Huantar civilization in the Andes Mountains (1500–500 BCE) was long considered the oldest in Peru. However, recent archaeological research shows that the Caral civilization (2700–1600 BCE) is older, with the oldest urban settlement in the Americas.
Before the Inca Empire emerged in the 14th century, several civilizations existed, including Paracas, Nazca, Chachapoyas, Moche, Tiwanaku, and Chimú. All were agrarian societies with rudimentary state formations. They developed technologies to master their environments and shared many cultural traits. The Inca Empire built upon the knowledge of these early civilizations and became the most advanced state formation in the Americas.
During the colonial period (1532–1821), the Inca population was subjected to Spanish rule. Society was divided into two: República de Blancos (Spaniards) and República de Indios (indigenous population), each with its own governance and authorities, with the indigenous population under Spanish control. The system of "reducciones" and "encomiendas" (administrative and territorial units for settlement and control of the indigenous population) provided labor for Spanish landlords, leading to the eventual takeover of land belonging to the indigenous population. At the same time, society became more complex, giving rise to new population groups: criollos (Spaniards born in America) and mestizos (mixed Spanish/indigenous).
Peru became an independent republic in 1821, marked by political strife and power shifts. The present-day Bolivia emerged from these conflicts when the region known as Alto Perú became Bolivia. A stable period in the mid-19th century was followed by economic prosperity due to revenue from guano (natural bird fertilizer), but it had little impact on the country's economic development. The War of the Pacific, also known as the Saltpeter War, took place from 1879 to 1883; initially between Chile and Bolivia, Peru joined due to a cooperation agreement with Bolivia. Peru lost the war to Chile in 1883, resulting in the loss of significant territories in the south.
(Based on García-Godos, Jemima: Peru in Store norske leksikon (Norwegian encyclopedia))

Pachacamac

Pachacamac is a well-known archaeological site on the coast of Peru, approximately 40 kilometers south of Lima. The name refers to the central coast's highest deity, which also held significance for the Incas.
During the so-called Early Intermediate Period (200 BCE–600 CE), Pachacamac emerged as a significant ceremonial center. The adobe pyramid known as the Temple of Pachacamac dates back to this period. In the subsequent era (600–1000 CE), the center grew into a larger city, which seems to have had a special, independent status within the Wari Empire, encompassing large areas of the coast and highlands from 700 to 1100.
During this time, a new artistic style emerged in Pachacamac, featuring the motif of the eagle on ceramics and multi-colored textiles. This style dominated the entire central coast and also influenced areas further south and north. Pachacamac maintained its reputation as a sacred place during the Inca period, as the ruling Incas made pilgrimages to the famous oracle there to seek advice.
(Siverts, Henning: Pachacamac in Store norske leksikon (Norwegian encyclopedia))

Paracas

Paracas is a town located on a peninsula. Off the coast of the peninsula are some islands called the Ballestas Islands. The Ballestas Islands and the Paracas Peninsula are now a national park with ancient cultural remains from the Paracas culture (pre-Nazca) and abundant wildlife.

Nazca-lines

The Nazca Lines are a collection of geoglyphs located in the Nazca Desert in Peru. These artworks are situated in an extremely arid area, stretching between the towns of Nazca and Palpa. They were created by the Nazca culture people between 500 BCE and 500 CE.
The lines form various patterns, including drawings of animals such as a hummingbird, lizard, spider, and monkey. The Nazca Lines are most visible from above, for example, from airplanes and satellites. Therefore, it took the Western world many hundreds of years to discover them. One hypothesis is that the Nazca Indians made the images to honor the gods they worshiped, but it's uncertain whether this hypothesis is correct or incorrect.
The lines were created by two methods: either by removing the thin layer of small stones to reveal the light sand underneath or by removing stones to make the surface uniform. It has been suggested that the Nazca Indians walked along the lines in a procession, thus tracing them. It is assumed that mathematical tools must have been used to achieve the precision seen in the drawings, but there is uncertainty about this.
The lines have endured for so many years because it never rains or blows in the Nazca Desert. It has been questioned how the drawings could be useful when they can only be seen from above. One hypothesis was that the Nazca Indians could actually travel through the air, but this is considered unlikely. In the 1970s, some tested the hypothesis by creating a kind of hot-air balloon out of straw and plant material. However, there has never been any evidence to suggest that such a thing was known during the Nazca culture.

The lines were first described, after being discovered from a mountain, by some archaeologists working in the vicinity. This took place in the interwar period, and it was the American Paul Kosok who wrote about the discovery. He collaborated with the German Maria Reiche, who worked in astronomy.
Since then, it has been common to think that the drawings were related to astronomical observations. However, it has not been possible to explain exactly what significance they had, and many of the hypotheses put forward by Maria Reiche could neither be confirmed nor refuted.
In recent years, with the help of satellite images, several drawings have been discovered nearby, but the extent of the Nazca Lines and the number of them are still unknown. When the Nazca Lines were included on UNESCO's World Heritage List in 1994, only 30 had been found. In 2019, a Japanese research team from Yamagata University announced that they had found 143 new geoglyphs.
(Norwegian wikipedia)

The Humboldt Current

The Humboldt Current, also known as the Peru Current, is a large ecosystem in the Pacific Ocean along the west coast of South America. It extends from the southern end of Chile to northern Peru and is among the largest of the currents that bring nutrient-rich water to the ocean surface, thereby enhancing organic production.

The Humboldt Current transports cold, low-salinity water from the southern Pacific Ocean towards the equator. Here, photosynthesis produces over 300 grams of carbon in organic matter per square meter in a year. This makes this area the most productive ecosystem in the world. The current also makes a significant contribution to the fishing industry, with almost one-fifth of the world's fish catches originating in the Humboldt Current, particularly species like jack mackerel, Chilean sardine, and anchoveta.
The Humboldt Current is named after the Prussian naturalist Alexander von Humboldt. The low temperatures in Antarctic waters from where the Humboldt Current originates result in the average water temperature along the west coast of South America being up to 7-8°C lower than the temperature in the open ocean at the same latitudes. Another effect is that the sea level (sea surface) here is up to 50 cm lower than in the west of Indonesia and New Guinea.
The cold water cools the air. The coastal areas near the Humboldt Current receive little rainfall and therefore form desert areas, such as the Atacama Desert in Chile. In years with the weather phenomenon El Niño, the cold Humboldt Current weakens; it can then sometimes completely disappear.
(Norwegian wikipedia)

Arequipa

Arequipa is Peru's second-largest city and the seat of the country's Constitutional Court. The city is located in the Andes Mountains at an altitude of 2300 meters above sea level, at the foot of the 5822-meter-high Misti volcano, and has a population of 1,008,290 (INEI, 2017).
Arequipa is a commercial center for the southern part of Peru, with significant tourist traffic. The city is situated in a fertile agricultural area where corn, potatoes, and vegetables are grown with the help of irrigation. The textile industry is particularly important, with production focusing on alpaca, llama, and sheep wool. The city lies on the Pan-American Highway and has railway connections to the port city of Mollendo and the inland city of Cuzco.
The historic center of the city is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The cityscape is characterized by white and pink buildings made of sillar, a local volcanic rock cut into blocks. Due to the high risk of earthquakes, the city consists mainly of single-story buildings. Arequipa Cathedral, built between 1540 and 1656 and restored several times, is considered one of the country's most magnificent colonial cathedrals.
Before Arequipa was founded as a Spanish city in 1540, the area was inhabited by the Incas. Despite several earthquakes, many colonial-era buildings have been well preserved. In 1612, Arequipa became the seat of a bishopric, with jurisdiction over the southern coastal region of Peru. In the 1790s, Arequipa was the second-largest city in the Viceroyalty of Peru, with a population of 22,030. Many historical buildings were destroyed by a powerful earthquake in 2001, just one year after the old town was inscribed on UNESCO's World Heritage List.
(Skatvik, Frida: Arequipa i Store norske leksikon.)

Sillustani

Sillustani is a pre-Inca cemetery located on the shores of Lake Umayo near Puno in Peru. The graves, built above ground in tower-like structures called chullpas, are the remnants of the Qulla people, who were Aymara conquered by the Inca Empire in the 15th century.
The structures housed the remains of complete family groups, although they were likely limited to the nobility. Many of the graves have been looted by grave robbers, while others remained unfinished.
Respect for the dead and kinship were integral parts of Aymara culture, and the immense chullpas or "chupaene" at Sillustani were built to house Aymara elites from the immediate pre-Inca and Inca periods. The term "chullpa" is still used today for the towers, although it was first used in the 19th century and comes from the Dictionary of Ludovico Bertonio (1612).
Many of the chullpas at Sillustani exhibit pre-Inca characteristics that were later incorporated with Inca stone blocks. Similar chullpas can be found throughout the southern Central Andes, with above-ground burial styles dating back at least to the mature Tiwanaku period (around 500–950 AD).
The interiors of the graves were built to accommodate entire groups of people, most likely extended families of Aymara elites. Bodies were not intentionally mummified, but in the dry environment created by the sealed grave, they survived for centuries. Most mummy bundles indicate burial in the fetal position.
Some of the graves also feature various animal forms carved into the stone. The only openings to the buildings face east, where it was believed that the sun was reborn by Mother Earth every day.

While chullpas are not unique to Sillustani and are found across the Altiplano, this site is considered the best-preserved example of them. A large ramp on one of the chullpas shows how stones would have been stacked on the walls during construction. Father Cobo observed Inca builders using a similar ramp in the construction of Cusco Cathedral.
(English wikipedia)

Titicaca

Titicaca is the largest lake in South America. It sits at an elevation of 3,812 meters above sea level on the border between Peru and Bolivia and covers an area of 8,300 square kilometers (km²); some measurements show 8,100 km². Titicaca is considered the world's highest navigable lake and is a popular tourist destination.
Titicaca drains into the Desaguadero River, which flows into the landlocked Lake Poopó. The lake has many islands, including the Island of Titicaca, which has ruins from the Inca period and earlier periods. Titicaca is known for its numerous endemic species, including the Titicaca grebe and the giant coot (which is flightless), as well as the Titicaca water frog that lives in the lake's deep waters.
(Store norske leksikon (2005-2007): Titicaca in Store norske leksikon (Norwegian encyclopedia))

The totora reed islands on Lake Titicaca

The artificial reed islands in Titicaca, Uros, are a major tourist attraction. They are made of totora reed. The reeds grow abundantly along the shore.
The islands were built in Inca times by Indians who wanted to escape enemies. Now, tribes live there who speak Quechua and Aymara.
According to legend, the Uros Indians themselves had black blood that helped them survive the nights on the water and protected them from drowning.
(Norwegian wikipedia)

Pikillaqta

Pikillaqta, which means "City of Fleas" or "small town," is not just an archaeological marvel. Its intricate urban planning and structures provide insight into the sophisticated society of the Wari people. Delving deeper, one discovers stories of innovation, culture, and resilience.

Pikillaqta stands as evidence of the architectural prowess of the Wari Empire. Unlike other ancient sites, its charm lies in urban design rather than towering temples. This pre-Inca city showcases organized city planning, hinting at a sophisticated society.
Every road and structure in Pikillaqta tells a story. Wari, known for its urban achievements, crafted a city of stone with purpose. Their keen eye for design is evident, blending both form and function.
Its massive walls and grand plazas illustrate precision. Furthermore, its intricate water management system showcases innovation. Pikillaqta was evidently not just a settlement but a symbol of Wari dominance.
While the Sacred Valley may boast wonders like Ollantaytambo, Pikillaqta offers a different spectacle. It provides insights not only into the ruler's realm but also for ordinary people. Residential complexes and streets reflect the rhythm of daily Wari life.
Interestingly, Pikillaqta remains an unfinished masterpiece. Some parts appear incomplete, prompting scholars to ponder. Is it due to external threats, internal strife, or migration? The mysteries deepen the intrigue.
(Tekst hentet fra nettstedet til Magical Cusco Travel Agency)

Cusco

Cuzco is a city in southeastern Peru, nestled in a deep valley in the eastern Andes Mountains, 3,400 meters above sea level, 950 kilometers southeast of Lima. The city has 434,654 inhabitants (INEI, 2015), the majority of whom are indigenous.
Cuzco is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the Western Hemisphere. It still preserves magnificent remnants of the Inca Empire, where Cuzco served as the capital. Since 1983, the city has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, attracting a significant number of tourists each year.
There are archaeological museums, a cathedral (1564), a university founded in 1692, and many other churches and monasteries in the city. The Church and Cathedral of Santo Domingo are built on the ruins of the great Sun Temple of Coricancha, which was the most important temple in the Inca Empire. In a hall adorned with gold plates, stood the image of the sun made of gold and precious stones. Nearby were temples dedicated to the moon, stars, and thunder, as well as the royal fortress and the Saksaywaman citadel. Only the stone wall from the original Sun Temple remains.
During the time of the Incas, Cuzco was shaped like a puma when viewed from above, with the Saksaywaman citadel forming the head of the puma. From this fortress, located just north of the city, one has a panoramic view of the entire Cuzco.
From Cuzco, there is a train to Machu Picchu, South America's most visited tourist destination.
Cuzco is said to have been founded by the first ruler of the Inca Empire, Manco Cápac, but is likely older. In 1533, it was conquered by the Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro and became part of the Spanish Empire. Cuzco suffered significant damage from a fire in 1536 and earthquakes in 1650 and 1950. The city was carefully restored after 1950, with accompanying labor migration from rural areas. Like in Lima and other major Peruvian cities, slum areas called "barriadas" emerged on the outskirts of the city.
(Skatvik, Frida: Cuzco i Store norske leksikon )

The Inca Empire

The Inca Empire ruled over vast territories in South America from the beginning of the 15th century until the Spanish conquest in 1532. At that time, it was one of the world's largest empires, stretching from the Maule River in present-day Chile to the current border between Ecuador and Colombia. The empire had its center of power in the city of Cuzco, located 3400 meters above sea level in present-day Peru. Key features included an agricultural economy based on terrace farming and artificial irrigation in the highlands, as well as an extensive communication network that connected the empire. It is arguably the largest empire to have existed without a written language.
"Inca" is a word from the Quechua language originally denoting the ruler of the Andean empire known to posterity as the Inca Empire. The term was also used for members of the ruler's family, extended to include the lineage or lineages associated with the royal house. The Incas themselves called the empire "Tawantin Suyu," which can be translated as "The Four Regions."
The Inca Empire was the largest political entity in the Americas. Around 1530, it extended from the present-day border between Ecuador and Colombia to the Maule River in Chile, an area approximately the size of France, the Benelux countries, Switzerland, and Italy combined. The population is difficult to ascertain with certainty; one estimate suggests that over four million people were under Inca administration, the majority residing in the most densely populated areas in present-day Bolivia and Peru.
In the early 15th century, the Incas, or the people who later became known by this name, were one of several highland tribes with a state organization. Both states and an empire (Tiahuanaco) comprising multiple states had existed in the first millennium CE. The entire period appears to have been characterized by cyclical conquests and local power shifts, with irrigation systems playing a central role.

From the mid-15th century, we can trace the true history of conquest, which begins in earnest with Pachacuti Inca. Together with his son, Topa Inca, he overcame rival states in the highland areas and expanded the territory northward towards Quito. Under Topa Inca, the empire experienced its greatest growth, but neither he nor his son Huayna Capac were able to conquer areas that were ecologically very different from the Central Andes. The southern grasslands and plains of Chile have obviously been as difficult to hold onto as the dry steppes and forests of El Gran Chaco or the tropical rainforest around the sources of the Amazon. For example, they were unable to subdue the Jivaro people who dominated this area.
The Incas' technology, organizational form, and irrigation civilization were adapted to the resources of the highlands and the coastal strip. Just as important as these natural limitations were the differences in political structure. A society that has semi-permanent tropical villages as its largest unit is difficult to incorporate into a state formation. It was more expedient to incorporate districts that were already organized into larger political units.
(Siverts, Henning; Opsvik, Tor: Inkariket i Store norske leksikon)

Machu Picchu

Machu Picchu is the name of a garrison town from the Inca period. Machu Picchu is located approximately 80 kilometers northeast of Cuzco in Peru. It was built around the year 1430 by the Inca ruler Pachakutiq. When the Spaniards conquered the Inca Empire in the 1530s, the site was an important religious and administrative center. Archaeological excavations since 1911 have uncovered very well-preserved ruins. Based on Machu Picchu's sophisticated architecture and its location in a uniquely rich and varied ecology, the site was granted UNESCO World Heritage status in 1983. Today, the ruins are one of Peru's major tourist attractions.

Machu Picchu is located at an altitude of 2430 meters, surrounded by peaks over 5000 meters in a national park where the highlands of the Andes Mountains abruptly descend into the Amazon rainforest. The landscape is characterized by deep river valleys and sharp mountain ridges. Climatically, this is also a transition zone. Precipitation increases rapidly as one moves further east. The annual average temperature in Machu Picchu is 13°C, and the average annual rainfall is 1800 millimeters. The result is an exceptionally rich flora and fauna and favorable conditions for agriculture where the terrain allows.
Evidence of agriculture has been found dating back to 760 BCE. The oldest settlements are dated between 600 and 900 CE. Within the park area, 60 archaeological sites have been uncovered. Machu Picchu is by far the largest, but the site had no permanent settlement until 1438 when Inca Pachakutiq conquered the region and decided to establish a llacta (garrison town) here. In all areas that the Inca Empire brought under its control, llactas were established as administrative, religious, and military support points for the empire. Machu Picchu also became the seat of Pachakutiq's own panaka or clan, for when he became Inca, he had to leave his father's clan and become the progenitor of a new one.
Pachakutiq (Spanish: Pachacuti) reigned from 1438 to 1471/1472. He initiated the great conquests that transformed Cuzco from a small kingdom into a world empire. Machu Picchu was built on a mountain ridge at the outermost border of the empire, for military strategic reasons as well as its spectacular location. The empire Pachakutiq founded was also united religiously by a common cult to the sun (inti), a system of 41 ceques (sacred lines) emanating from Cuzco and connecting 328 sacred sites (wak'as) along the lines. All settlements in the Inca Empire had their wak'a and belonged to a ceque. From Machu Picchu (which means 'old peak'), eight roads radiated outwards, and from here, one can follow numerous ceques to various sacred peaks, stone formations, and water sources, all of which were also wak'as.
On a habitable area measuring approximately 530 x 200 meters atop the ridge, between two peaks and where the terrain drops vertically 500 meters down to the Urubamba River on both sides, archaeologists have identified 172 buildings in Inca style, meaning dry stone construction with polished and finely fitted stone blocks. The settlement is divided into four quadrants, with the two lower ones consisting of terraces for intensive agriculture. In the two upper ones, there are numerous temples, residences for noble families and various specialists, as well as various workshops. Like in all Inca cities, there is also an aqllawasi, a 'virgin house' where selected young women lived in service to the temples.

Among the temples, the "temple of the sun" (inti mach'ay) stands out as perhaps the most important due to its role in the cult of the sun. The temple is built over a set of caves and is constructed with the finest walls in the city. A tunnel-shaped window casts light onto a series of water pools inside the cave. During the solstices, the sun shines in, and the water surfaces reflect the sun. Another striking temple is the so-called "tower" or sun temple, which likely served as an observatory. In the center lies the Inca's own residence and intiwatana, a finely carved stone shaped like a truncated pyramid flanked by water channels. "Intiwana" means "the place where the sun is tied," referring to its path or sightline. The stone functions as an astronomical clock where the length of the shadow at midday indicates the time of year. On November 11th and January 30th, it casts no shadow.
The city likely had no more than 750 permanent residents. Additionally, there was a constant stream of pilgrims, troops, and visiting specialists. Skeleton analyses show that the residents came from all corners of the empire, probably as mitmaqkuna, people performing labor duty for the Inca. All residents of the Inca Empire were subject to such state-mandated labor service. It is estimated that half of all the work invested in building Machu Picchu went into foundations and infrastructure. The area also includes a quarry and 16 water sources.
On the terraces, maize, potatoes, quinoa, and beans were cultivated, but not enough to feed the city. It relied on supplies from the surrounding area. Archaeological investigations in the national park show a marked increase in population throughout the region from 1430 to 1530.
(Ekern, Stener: Machu Picchu i Store norske leksikon)

Ollantaytambo

Ollantaytambo is a village and archaeological site from the Inca Empire in southern Peru. It is located at an altitude of 2,792 meters above sea level, around 60 km northwest of Cusco, in the Urubamba Valley on the way to Machu Picchu. The village serves as the administrative center of the Ollantaytambo district in the Urubamba province.
Ollantaytambo was constructed by the ruler Pachakutiq in the mid-15th century. The town underwent significant reconstruction during the colonial period but still follows the original urban plan. Several structures around the town are in ruins and are popular tourist destinations. The most prominent feature is the large terraces that were used for agriculture.
(Norwegian wikipedia)